| 2.0 | Topology and taxonomy
The topology and taxonomy of the Education and Practice systems presented in this report rely on concepts which may be summarised as follows..
First, there is the presumption that the total range of services provided by the geodetic surveying profession is vital for the continuance of modern civilisation as we know it. Therefore a sufficient number of persons with top level intellects must be recruited each year into its ranks, if only for the reason that they will be respected by their peers within other related professions.These leaders must also be able to respond to rapidly changing demands and technological processes.Such persons require the stimulus and opportunity to learn in a proper free thinking academic environment. It is the very nature of such a system of education that current dogma must be examined and questioned but not taught only in a vocational manner. Such persons may therefore not be immediately useful to an employer and require a period of guided experience before reaching full competence.
Secondly, these leaders must be supported by a cadre of persons capable of managing the day to day operations of the profession and responding to new demands. Such persons need to be well versed in the latest technologies and ready to respond to change. In former times there was also a requirement that these persons should be highly skilled personnel. This is no longer so. Their education must produce immediate competence and must emphasise the accepted technological fashions of the day.
Thirdly, there is a need for persons of adequate intellect to operate the various forms of instrumentation used in data acquisition and routine processing. In this case the need is for a system specific training only.
It is vital for the well being of individuals and society that each person is well matched to the level of perfomance expected of him or her. This may be a matter of choice for the individual who may be happy to under-perform, but to be out of one's depth is to breed anxiety and stress. Most societies endeavour to match demands with competence at various levels in the educational journey, although the individual concerned is not always the best judge of this matching process. A wise feature in any heirachical system is to provide bridges for persons to progress up, down or across from stage to stage.
Although the two aspects, education and professional competence, are closely inter-related - the former being the basis of the latter - each is presented in the report by two separate diagrammatic summaries in the form of circular charts. This form of presentation has been chosen to clear linguistic barriers and to ensure that proper emphasis is assigned to the various groupings selected. The diagrams therefore attempt to give a quantitative as well as a qualitative picture.
The manner in which each country structured its educational system to respond to these levels of competence is given in the Figures A, depicting topology, and Figures B and C, depicting taxonomy.
|
| |
| 2.1 | National Topology Diagrams A
The topological structure of each national education system is depicted in chart form in diagrams "A". These flow charts summarise the educational route within each country both at an establishment of formal education and whilst working for a professional firm before gaining a qualification.
In these flow charts, which follow the style of UNESCO publications, each year of study or practical work leading to a qualification is represented by a square containing a number giving the year of study of a particular stage.
The full lines show the normal progression through a system: the dashes show possible alternatives. Qualifications are indicated by symbols.
These figures generally exclude non specialist geodetic surveying elements taught as part of degree courses such as Civil Engineering, except where there is no specialised Geodetic surveying education, as in the Republic of Ireland.
The general pattern of attendance at tertiary courses is "full-time". In France courses are of the "sandwich type", in which a period of working with a firm is "sandwiched" between periods of full-time academic studies. A few UK courses are also of this type. In Spain, student numbers are currently so great that a shift system has to be employed until facilities improve.
Most teaching in tertiary institutions is by full-time staff, although in France all but the teaching of mathematics and science is by part-time teachers, usually recruited from the public service one day per week. Elsewhere some use is made of part-time specialists for ad hoc periods as the need arises. Full-time teachers at universiies are generally expected to have a research or development topic, often related to industry, which finances the work directly or via a research council funded by the state. |
| 2.2 | Education criteria Diagrams B
These notes have been written to give further explanation of the division of educational curricula into the segments of the pie charts B divide into 20 sectors.These 20 elements encompass the total education of all surveyors as defined by the FIG. The various sectors show the breadth of the curriculum, whilst the levels A,B and C indicate the depth of study in descending order.
Definition of Geodetic Surveying sectors.
Some flexibility is needed when defining their scope to allow for the dynamic nature of any curriculum. A few examples should suffice to clarify some matters.
1 Hydrography
It is unlikely that all but a few educational institions will have the expertise and equipment to teach this subject to the highest level.Most will do so to a lower level, and some not at all.
2 Geodesy
This is taken to include all current processes to provide control points for mapping and other use.It is assumed that only a few students will specialise to reach the very highest level of the A grade. Many courses give a treatment something between the A and B levels.
3 Maths and Science
It is probably this topic that distinguishes the University level from others Topics such as numerical analysis and computer science are included here.
4 Instruments
It is probable that the studies in this topic are not now as high as in former times simply because the technologies used are so advanced and largely secret. However, a wide knowledge of the principles and limitations of all forms on instrumentation appropriate to each topic is required.
5 Mining and engineering surveying
Syllabuses differ according to locality. Where there are few mines but many high mountains tunnelling expertise is clearly needed.Where there is large industrial activity, industrial surveying would be expected.
16 Rural development
In only a few countries, such as Switzerland, does the geodetic surveyor require advanced teaching in this topic.In most countries this topic lies within another profession.
17 Planning
In only a few countries, such as Finland, does the geodetic surveyor require advanced teaching in this topic.In most countries this topic lies within another profession.
18 Law
A study of some law is required in most courses. Those countries with a licensed cadastral system require a very high level of study.
20 Maps and GIS
This a topic which is undergoing much change. It includes techniques such as topographic photogrammery. remote sensing, digital cartography and the elements of GIS and LIS. The scientific parts of the syllabuses are contained under Maths and Science.
Since these original 20 elements were chosen in 1977, it is clear that they are insufficient to cover either the wider scope of Western Europe or to accommodate changes in professional practice.Although much can be done by redefining the meaning of a category, it is sometimes necessary to introduce an entirely new one, as is the case in Greece (Civil Engineering) and the UK Hydrographic Surveyor (Marine Practice).This has been done on the circle charts by using a category hitherto unused by that specialisation. Such flexibility will allow future reports to be updated. |
| |
| 2.3 | Definition of levels A, B and C
Level C
The lowest level C was set at the standard usually reached in a UK secondary school for a given subject. In some cases, such as mathematics, the criteria are easy to define, whilst in others the divisions are less clear. Indeed, it is difficult to set the lowest standard, when the subject is not taught at all in a secondary school system.
This lowest level was needed to accommodate the teaching of professional subjects such as Land Surveying, Building design and construction etc, within the Italian Educational system. It has proved to be useful to accommodate the low level teaching of simple land surveying methods to non-specialists such as Quantity Surveyors, Geologists, Geographers and others.
It is also used to accomodate subjects taught as part of a general background in advanced courses. For example the subject of hydrographic surveying is dealt only at the C level in a landlocked country such as Austria.
Level B
The middle level B was set at the standard reached after two years of teaching at post secondary level. The period of two years was chosen to reflect the fact that, in the majority of courses inspected by the author, very few topics are studied for more that this period, even within a long course of four or five years.
Level A
The third level A, the highest, is open ended, since it concerns a level of teaching and learning of topics , as yet, not completely understood, and which are still the subject of research and uncertainty.To reach this level requires a free thinking analytical mind: knowlege alone is insufficient.
Example of C, B and A levels.
By way of illustration, consider the topic of Matrix algebra.within Sector 3 Maths and Science.
Level C
involves a classical treatment of 2 x 2 and 3 x 3 matrices, but no more.
Level B
deals with large matrices, their differentiation, and the advanced operations of classical matrix algebra.
Level A
is concerned with non-classical problems such as generalised inverses, and the specially structured matrices which arise in photogrammetry, geodesy and statistical testing etc.
Assuming all 20 selected curricular elements are of equal difficulty, the total area covered by the curriculum of any one system relates to the length of study and its intellectual difficulty. Naturally one cannot press this view too far; but it is a useful concept and helps to indicate if the basis for a selection is reasonable. Thus the superposition of one chart on the other will identify the similarities and differences between two systems. |
| | 2.3.1 | Practice criteria Diagrams C
These notes have been written to give further explanation of the division of professional practice into the 25 segments of the pie charts C. The classification of professional activity is less simple than that of the curricula. However, a few principles help with the establishment of criteria.
- Suitable levels of education in the curriculum are needed to support the professional category, and these should be stated. e.g. it is impossible to reach a high standard A in Geodetic Surveying without involving the corresponding A standards in Geodesy, Maths and Science, and level B in Instruments.
- The purely formal part of an education system alone is insufficient.There needs to be a supplement arising from sufficient professional experience involving various parameters such as judgement, responsibility, analysis of problems, decision making, and the aquisition of additional knowledge, such as legal and financial aspects of the profession.
- To some extent to qualify at the highest level A, an element of managerial experience is required. In this respect the probationary period serving under approved persons, is a vital element in the definition of the top level.
These additional factors must also be monitored properly and objectively, such as is the case with the RICS TPC or French stagiaire system.(See Appendices D12 and D3)
- It must be remembered that it is the newly qualified person who is under consideration here, not a mature person, nor a collection of individuals, such as can be found in a firm, or department.
Example of C, B and A levels from Geodetic Surveying.
The process of levelling serves to illustrate a number of points.
Level C
is the practical execution of site and line levelling in common use on building and engineering sites.
Level B
concerns the design of a large network of levelling, responsibility for the training of instrument men, operation of the quality assurance system in use, and the least squares processing of results.
Level A
is the management of C and B, and the inclusion of Geodetic standards and such niceties as orthometric corrections, and the use of measured gravity, in national networks. Also, the writing of specifications for contract work, the design of Quality Assurance systems ,and its execution will also be factors. In any one case, not everyone of the above concomitants will be present, but they have to be in good measure, it the level A is to be justified.
It must be expected that there will be some measure of overlap between sectors; for instance levelling is common to several categories, such as (1),(2),(3),(5) and (6), but not all to the same standard.
|
| |
| 2.4 | Quality in Education |
| | 2.4.1 | Assessment
Throughout every stage of education some estimate of the quality of performance of the student is required, if only to see if he or she is competent to benefit from the next stage in the process or to be the basis of a choice of future alternatives.There is also a need to provide the public with a measure of attainment in selecting persons for employment.
Quality assessment in education usually takes any or all of four forms:
- Written tests and examinations.
- Continuous assessment of practical exercises.
- Oral examination.
- Project writing and oral defence.
The extent to which these various techniques are used varies from country to country and according to the stage in the educational journey. It also varies with the expressed purpose of the test.For example the ability to work in a team cannot readily be tested by written papers. Many contend that the traditional three or four hour written examination is the only infallible way of actually testing a particular individual. Others prefer to use written testing merely as a filter to judge the readiness of a student for oral examination.
However, the best way to test for quality is very much linked with the educational philosophy of the course of study. The University Graduate must demonstrate ability to think through a problem never before encountered and be able to pass comment of the relevance of the questions posed and answers given. On the other hand it is important to find out if a Technician has the knowlege and skill to operate specific computer software for example, and if an Operator can set up an instrument efficiently.
Whatever the method of assessment, there are good reasons for it to monitored and publically understood. In the past there has been too much secrecy and variation in assessment procedures. Many countries have adopted a system of quality control to monitor and control standards. In the UK for example, there has long been established a system of external examining at tertiary institutions. In these, each degree course appoints an external examiner, from another academic institution, who is required to follow a regulated procedure including the auditing of examination question papers, the inspection of scripts and their marking, and involvement in the overall award of qualifications. The system has benefical effects which far outweigh the expenses incurred.Among these benefits are the following;
- It insures against a casual attitude towards examinations on the part of teachers.
- It ensures that the examinations are fair and seen to be such.
- It guards against the application standards being either too low or too high and brings some degree of uniformity of quality throughout the country.
- It prevents institutions from becoming too insular and academically incestuous.
This or other similar systems of quality control in education are not as widespread as one would like throughout Western Europe. Clearly if a mutual recognition of diplomas is to have real acceptance, some measure of controlled reciprocity has to be introduced.
The French examination (E) is a form of continuous assessment following the submission of a report on a selected project, defended by the student before an assessor. The practical exam (C) consists of the scrutiny of five major pieces of professional work certified by the candidate's employer, carried out during his three years' approved experience monitored by the Ordre des Géometres-Experts.(See appendices D3 and D5)
German universitiy examination systems vary from place to place, the usual form being a stiff academic test set at the end of the second year of studies, followed by a system of continuous assessment thereafter. The right to practise cadastral surveying is given after state tests and periods of approved experience which vary from one to two years depending on the Land ("state"). (D4)
In Greece, there exists a complex legal system governing the rights of qualified engineers to practise both as to size of operations and geographically. (See D5)
In the Italian school system there are written and oral tests plus continuous assessment of course work, with passes awarded in various grades at the end of the course. The examinations are set by a qualified civil servant and selected teachers. (D7)
The RICS also continues to run its own examination system (Pl), (P2) and (P3), on a franchise basis, from which passes at academic institutions are granted exemption. However, no candidate is granted exemption from the Test of Professional Competence (TPC) (D 12)
|
| | 2.4.2 | Entry to universities and colleges
Of relevance is the mode of selection, if any, for entry to higher education.Much depends on the existence or not of a policy of numerus clausus.
Entry to the French surveying schools is as competitive as for other subjects taught in the Grandes Écoles. This results in a high success rate (95%) for those students who undertake courses.
In Germany grades are given in Abitur passes. Formerly anyone with a suitable Abitur pass could enter a university; now there is a restriction on numbers (numerus clausus) and a clearing house for applications has been set up, similar to the Universities Admissions system of the UK. To enter a geodetic surveying course at least a grade 3 Abitur is required. (A4)
In England entry to a university depends on at least two passes at the advanced level of the general certificate of education, plus three more at the ordinary standard. These "A" level passes have to be at a suitable grade (usually C or above) and must be in relevant subjects - eg passes in mathematics and physics are essential for studies in land surveying.There is now trend towards greater flexibility in admissions policy.
In Scotland, typical entry to the Science Faculty at the University of Glasgow requires a minimum of five subjects at the Higher School Certificate Level, three of which must be at least grade B in a science subject.
Because no enforcement of a numerus clausus policy is permitted by law at Spanish universities, the geodetic surveying course at the Technical University of Madrid is typically swamped by c.300 entrants requiring two shifts from 8.00 til 14.00 hrs and from 15.00 to 21.00 hrs.
|
| | 2.4.3 | Universities and colleges of technology
The term "university" is taken to mean a university or an institution of an equivalent status.With the rapid growth in higher education across Europe the distinction between "University" and "College of Technology" has become blurred and in some cases removed, giving rise to a state of confusion and uncertainty of quality and competence. No doubt, and given time, this interim uncertainty will disappear. It is interesting to note that whilst surveying courses in colleges based on the German Fachhochschule model are being established in Finland and Switzerland, the Austrians have firmly declared against this, on the grounds that there is no longer any need for this calibre of person in the survey industry which has been deskilled by technological advances. By contrast, the existing university institutions in Spain are being upgraded by the addition of a second cycle to gain the higher status equvalent to that of the German Technische Hochschulen.
|
| | 2.4.4 | Actual length of study periods
Across Europe, circumstances vary as to the length of time actually taken to complete a course. It is unusual in many countries, such as in the UK, for this time to exceed the period indicated in the chart A, whereas in others, this is not so. For example, in Spain the average time to complete a three year course at the Technical University of Madrid is typically 5.5 years, and in Finland, 7.5 years are needed, on average, to complete the five year studies at the Technical University of Helsinki.The reasons for this disparity, though complex and affected by national service requirements, are closely related to the number of students admitted to a course and the arrangements for their funding. For details see the national sections and Table (1)
|
| | 2.4.5 | Professional practice requirements
Also recorded are the extra-academic tests and periods of experience imposed by many professional and technical institutions between the award of a university degree or technician diploma and acceptance as a fully qualified member. Details of these tests of professional or technical competence are given, where available, in each national section of this report, and in the summary Table (l).
|
| | 2.4.6 | Education and training
At very stage in the education of an individual there is to be found a purely academic element. By this we mean there is some desire to develop powers of reason, imagination, logic and communication in their own right.
However there is also a need for a person to acquire knowlege, and to develop user skills of varying kinds, which will enable functions to be performed in return for remuneration. This is vocational element may be thought of as training. Often these two facets may be combined in a properly designed syllabus.
In categorising the objectives of a system of education these two factors are given different weightings. Each educational establishment adopts a philosophy appropriate to its purposes and develops its curriculum and syllabuses accordingly. There is a difficulty here in that in two educational establishments the same written curriculum and syllabus may hide completely different philosophies and attitudes. These often depend on the personal attitudes of the academic staff of the establishment and its traditional approach.We dispute the contention that a Technologist can be converted into a University Graduate by the addition of extra periods of study alone. A major change in attitude is also required.
Ultimately all persons must be able to perform effectively in a professional manner. Thus a period of post-academic professional experience is required to enable the raw academic to mature into a competent professional.In some countries this experience can be of a general nature monitored by an association, or it may be very specifically linked to the Cadastre and regulated by a state licensing body.
|
